At the molecular level, the prime targets are the neurotransmitter transporters SERT and DAT which mediate amphetamine-induced non-exocytotic efflux (Sitte and Freissmuth, 2010). Amphetamine-induced dopamine efflux is partially dependent upon the specific activation of intracellular kinases (e.g., CamKIIα and PKCβ), glutamate receptors and l-type Ca2+ channels (Kantor et al., 2004; Licata et al., 2004; Fog et al., 2006; Chen et al., 2009; Singer et al., 2010). Pharmacological inhibition of CamKIIα or PKCβ in cells and rodents and gene knockout of PKCβ in mice reduces amphetamine-induced, DAT-mediated DA efflux (Fog et al., 2006; Chen et al., 2009).
After the first occurrence, paranoid symptoms can be invoked by psychosocial stress, but also readily reappear after amphetamine injection. This behavioral sensitization is thought to be mediated by catecholaminergic supersensitivity. High doses of amphetamines can produce psychotic behavior indistinguishable from schizophrenia in asymptomatic schizophrenics and in some healthy human subjects 190, 191. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) recognizes diagnoses of amphetamine-induced psychotic disorder with delusions and amphetamine-induced psychotic disorder with hallucinations.
Mục Lục
Amphetamine-Type Stimulants
It is important for people to remember that they do not need to feel embarrassed about seeking help. Researchers have also studied amphetamines for use in people with obesity, narcolepsy, cocaine dependence, and other conditions. These changes to the brain mean that a person may always be at risk of using a substance again, even if they have not used it for a long time. When someone misuses a substance consistently over time, they may find that they need more and more of the substance to feel the same degree of euphoria.
In line with its sympathomimetic affects, MDMA abuse has also been linked with myocardial damage and valvular heart disease (Baumann and Rothman 2009). The review also indicated that BCBT alone or in combination with pharmacological treatments was efficacious https://ecosoberhouse.com/article/addiction-to-amphetamine-symptoms-treatment-and-recovery/ in either abstinence from amphetamines or reduced amphetamines abuse with medium or large effect sizes [20–23]. The percentage of abstinence from amphetamines had a range from 40.8% [21] to 58.3% [20] among treated participants at six-month follow-up.
Brain damage from licit amphetamines
Conversely, smoked methamphetamine thermally degrades to yield amphetamine by N-demethylation 23, 77. The steep increase in the diagnosis of ADHD during the 1990’s in the United States led to a parallel increase in production and societal exposure to legally distributed amphetamine. This change contributed to the surge in illicit use of pharmaceutical amphetamine, and the illegal manufacture and use of methamphetamine and methylenedioxymethamphetamine that continued to accelerate through the 1990s. Detailed discussion of these epidemics goes beyond the scope of this review, but they continue to be a substantial international public health problem, as detailed in a recent supplement of the journal “Addiction” 76. In the 1990s, longer acting forms of amphetamine were developed using capsules of mixed d- and l- salts in both immediate release pellets and enteric-coated, delayed-release beads. The different salts and beads are metabolized at different rates, resulting in a less dramatic onset and termination of therapeutic action.
- Since over 95% of pharmaceutical amphetamines are either d-amphetamine or a mixture of d- and l-amphetamine salts, this review concentrates on these compounds.
- Amphetamines including methamphetamine (MA) are a global health problem and there is concern that amphetamines abuse will continue, despite awareness of multiple harms [1].
- Because of this, a person living with addiction is not “weak” or “lacking in willpower.” A person can manage this chronic, progressive health condition with appropriate treatment, just as people can manage many other health conditions.
With methamphetamine, these problems can be even more exaggerated, leading to severe dental disease because of bad eating and lack of saliva, which leads to major infections and loss of teeth, as described by the American Dental Association. In addition, using meth can lead to skin damage due to hallucinations that something is “crawling” under the skin, leading people to pick at sores that then, due to damaged blood circulation, Amphetamine Addiction do not easily heal. These individuals consider that the high energy and focus that result from using the drug can help them perform better on tests and in school. However, an article from TIME discusses a study that showed students who use amphetamines do not perform any better; in fact, they often perform worse. Nevertheless, the drug does make people feel like they can focus more and do better even if the opposite is true.
